Najprv ale odporúčam prečítať článok Spriateľme sa s príkazovým riadkom, ktorý úplné základy príkazového riadku vysvetľuje ešte podrobnejšie. V žiadnom prípade nečítajte tento článok, ak si myslíte že príkazový riadok do 21. storočia nepatrí alebo keď sa nechcete učiť nové veci.
Obsah:
- Špeciality príkazového riadku (BASH)
- Pohyb na disku a základná práca so súbormi
- Práca s terminálom
- Systémové nástroje
- Práca so sieťou
- Kompresia a kontrola dát
- Ostatné užitočné programy
- Programovanie a kompilovanie
- Nástroje X Window System
- Výpočty
- Práca so zvukom
Špeciality príkazového riadku (BASH)
Len veľmi stručne. Príkazy sa píšu do príkazového riadku, ten sa objaví po prihlásení v konzole. V X Window System môžete použiť program "Terminál" (xterm, rxvt, gnome-terminal, konsole, ...). História vašich príkazov je prístupná stlačením šípky hore, novšie príkazy zobrazujete šípkou dole. Automatické dopĺňanie cesty spravíte tabulátorom. Ak niečo pokazíte alebo z nejakého programu nebudete vedieť odísť, skúste stlačiť Q alebo Ctrl + C. Ak stlačíte Ctrl + Z, program sa zastaví, ale je možné ho znova spustiť príkazom "fg" alebo prerušiť príkazom "kill %1". Reťazce môžete zadávať do jednoduchých ' úvodzoviek alebo do dvojitých " úvodzoviek. Systémové premenné (začínajú dolárom $ a končia nealfanumerickým znakom) sa v texte nezobrazia, ak použijete jednoduché úvodzovky. Text v opačných ` úvodzovkách je vykonaný ako príkaz a výstup je prevzatý ako premenná. Znakom = sa premenným priradia hodnoty, ale musí byť bezprostredne za názvom premennej.
Ak chcete proces spustiť na pozadí, na konci príkazu napíšte ampersand &. Ak chcete presmerovať výstup programu (napr. do súboru), použite znak > ak chcete výstup zapísať na koniec súboru, použite >>, ak chcete prehnať dáta postupne viacerými programami použite znak |. Ak chcete presmerovať chybový výstup, použite 2>, ak chcete chybový výstup presmerovať do štandardného výstupu, použite 2>&1. Ak chcete vymenovať viac súborov, použite * pre ľubovoľný počet znakov (a* sú súbory začínajúce na "a"). Adresáre sa oddeľujú znakom /. Skryté súbory začínajú bodkou. Bodka znamená aj aktuálny adresár. Tilda ~ znamená domáci adresár /home/používateľ. Špeciálne znaky sa kódujú spätnou lomkou \. V niektorých programoch alebo termináloch ak nefunguje klávesa backspace, skúste Ctrl + H.
Pohyb na disku a základná práca so súbormi
cd adresár
Nastaví sa do zvoleného adresára, ak nie je adresár definovaný, presunie sa do domáceho adresára, / je koreňový adresár, ak je adresár .. tak sa presunie o úroveň vyššie, ../.. o dve úrovne vyššie.
ls -la adresár
Vypíše obsah adresára, ak nie je definovaný, tak obsah aktuálneho, prepínač -l zobrazí podrobnosti, prepínač -a zobrazí aj skryté súbory.
pwd
Vypíše cestu aktuálneho adresára.
mkdir -p adresár
Vytvorí adresár, s prepínačom -p vytvorí všetky adresáre vyššej úrovne, ak nie sú vytvorené.
rmdir adresár
Vymaže adresár.
cp zdroj cieľ
Kopíruje zdroj do cieľa (parametre sú súbory alebo adresáre).
mv zdroj cieľ
Presunie zdroj do cieľa (parametre sú súbory alebo adresáre).
cat súbor
Vypíše obsah súboru alebo aj viacerých súborov (mená oddelené medzerami).
chmod mód cieľ
Nastaví atribúty cieľa (súbor alebo adresár). Mód môže byť v oktálnej forme - 3 cifry 0 až 7 tvorené súčtom: 4 čítanie, 2 zápis, 1 spúšťanie. Prvá cifra sa týka majiteľa, druhá skupiny, tretia ostatných. Adresáre a spustiteľné súbory majú typicky 755, súbory 644, 777 znamená, že každý môže robiť všetko. Mód môže byť aj v písmenkovom tvare: prvé písmeno g=skupina, u=používateľ, o=ostatní, druhé písmeno + znamená nastaviť príznak, - znamená zrušiť, tretie písmeno: r čítanie, w zápis, x spúšťanie. Prepínač -R pre rekurzívne nastavenie (aj podadresáre a súbory v nich).
chown používateľ cieľ -R
Nastaví vlastníka (meno) cieľa (súbor alebo adresár), -R znamená rekurzívne (ak je to adresár).
chgrp skupina cieľ -R
Nastaví skupinu (meno skupiny) cieľa (súbor alebo adresár), -R znamená rekurzívne.
touch súbor
Obnoví časové značky súboru, ak neexistuje, tak ho vytvorí.
Práca s terminálom
tty
Vypíše meno dev súboru, ktorému zodpovedá aktuálny terminál (napr. /dev/pts/1).
clear
Vymaže v konzole obrazovku.
reset
Resetuje terminál, občas to pomôže, keď sa vám (napr. v mc) rozsypú znaky v konzole.
screen
Umožňuje na jednej konzole spúšťať viacero programov naraz, vhodné, ak ste pripojený vzdialene a máte len jeden terminál. Nové okno vytvoríte cez "Ctrl+a c", medzi oknami prepínate "Ctrl+a n", help pre screen zobrazíte cez "Ctrl+a ?".
setterm
Rôzne nastavenia terminálu, napr. setterm -foreground green, platí len pre konzolu.
loadkeys klávesnica
V konzole nastaví klávesnicu, napr. "us" pre americkú, "sk-qwerty" pre slovenskú, medzi klávesnicami sa prepína klávesu Pause.
setfont meno
V konzole natiahne font (sú v /lib/kbd/consolefonts, napr. lat2-08), nastavenie potom platí pre všetky konzoly, ak sa niečo pokašle, napíšte "reset", malo by sa to vrátiť do pôvodného stavu.
mesg y
Povolí (y) alebo zakáže (n) príjem textových správ na terminál (program talk).
write užívateľ terminál
Písanie textovej správy používateľovi, len na lokálnom termináli.
wall správa
Pošle správu všetkým prihláseným používateľom.
Systémové programy
passwd používateľ
Zmení heslo používateľovi. Ak nie je udané, tak zmení heslo práve prihlásenému používateľovi.
adduser meno
Pridá nového používateľa od systému, aby sa mohol prihlásiť, musíte mu ešte nastaviť heslo programom "passwd meno". Používateľa odstránite príkazom deluser.
addgroup meno
Pridá skupinu, delgroup odoberie skupinu.
ps aux
Zobrazí bežiace procesy, prepínač "a" zobrazí aj cudzie procesy, "u" vypíše aj mená používateľov, "x" zobrazí aj tie procesy, ktoré nemajú priradený terminál (démoni).
pidof program
Vypíše číslo PID (process identificator) zvoleného procesu.
top
Čosi ako task manažér ale v konzole, pravidelne zobrazuje procesy a ich záťaž, ukončíte ho stlačením "q".
kill -9 číslo_procesu
Ukončí proces s daným číslom procesu (PID). Prepínač -9 spôsobí okamžité ukončenie.
killall -9 meno_procesu
Ukončí všetky procesy s daným menom.
dmesg
Vypíše hlášky kernelu, ktoré sa objavili pri štarte počítača a počas behu.
uname -a
Vypíše všetky informácie o kerneli, prepínač -r napr. vypíše len verziu kernelu.
ln -s zdroj linka
Vytvorí symbolickú linku na zdroj (súbor alebo adresár). Ak neuvediete -s, tak sa vytvorí hard linka (neodporúčam).
dd if=vstup of=výstup bs=veľkosť_bloku count=počet_blokov
Surové kopírovanie dát, zo súboru alebo zariadenia, môžete uviesť aj veľkosť bloku a počet blokov, používa sa napr. na nahrávanie obrazov diskiet alebo na vytváranie prázdnych súborov určitej veľkosti (ako zdroj sa použije /dev/zero).
mount zariadenie adresár -o loop -t typ
Primontuje zariadenie (napr. /dev/fd0 je disketa) na adresár (napr. /mnt/floppy), pomocou -t môžete špecifikovať typ súborového systému. Ak je zariadenie uvedené v súbore /etc/fstab, tak stačí špecifikovať len adresár (mount /mnt/floppy). Prepínač -o loop sa používa, ak je namiesto zariadenia použitý súbor s filesystémom, vtedy ale musíte byť root. Adresár musí existovať a mal by byť prázdny.
umount zariadenie
Odpojí zariadenie, môže to byť aj adresár, nesmie byť ale používaný iným procesom, lebo vám ho nedovolí odpojiť.
mkfs -t typ zariadenie
Vytvorí súborový systém daného typu (ext2, ext3, vfat, msdos, minix, reiserfs) na zariadení alebo v súbore. Niekedy sú tieto programy prístupné ako mkfs.typ (mkfs.ext2) alebo ext2 a ext3 je prístupný cez mke2fs.
fdformat /dev/fd0
Program na formátovanie diskiet á la MS DOS.
fsck zariadenie
Skontroluje filesystém na zariadení (napr. partícia /dev/hda1), zariadenie by malo byť pripojené v read-only móde alebo byť nepripojené.
nice -priorita program parametre_programu
Program na spúšťanie iných programov s inou ako predvolenou prioritou 0. Priorita môže byť v rozsahu -19 až 19, záporné hodnoty (vyššia priorita) môže používať len root.
fdisk zariadenie
Program na vytváranie partícií na disku, (napr. fdisk /dev/hda), je interaktívny, "m" vypíše príkazy, "q" je koniec, "p" zoznam partícií, "d" maže partíciu, "n" je nová partícia, "w" zapíše zmeny.
su meno
Prihlásite sa ako iný používateľ, ak meno neuvediete tak ako root, v oboch prípadoch bude od vás pýtať heslo, ak nie ste root.
sudo príkaz
Spustí príkaz pod iným používateľom.
modprobe modul
Natiahne do jadra daný modul alebo moduly (napr. modprobe smc-ultra, automaticky dotiahne modul 8390 ktorý smc-ultra potrebuje).
insmod modul
Natiahne modul tak ako modprobe, ale musíte zadať úplnú cestu, nerieši závislosti modulov.
rmmod modul
Odoberie modul z jadra.
lsmod
Zobrazí všetky moduly natiahnuté v jadre plus nejaké informácie o nich.
lspci
Vypíše informácie o zariadeniach na PCI zbernici.
bash skript.sh
BASH je interpreter príkazov, to je to, v čom píšete príkazy do príkazového riadku. Ak chcete spustiť nejaký skript (niekoľko príkazov v súbore), tak to môžete spraviť takto: bash skript.sh alebo nastavíte spustiteľný príznak (chmod 755 skript.sh) a spustíte ho ako program (./skript.sh).
nohup program &
Program na spúšťanie programov na pozadí tak, aby sa neskončili, keď sa odhlásite. Výstup sa presmeruje do súboru nohup.out.
open
Spustí program v novej virtuálnej konzole.
exit
Ukončí aktuálny interpreter príkazového riadku.
mknod meno typ majorčíslo minorčíslo
Vytvorí špeciálny súbor blokového alebo znakového zariadenia (súbory v /dev/) daného typu (b=blokové, c/u=znakové, p=FIFO)
mkfifo meno
Vytvorí FIFO (pomenované rúry)
mkisofs -o súbor.iso adresár
Z adresára vytvorí ISO súbor, ktorý je potom možné napáliť pomocou cdrecord na CD.
badblocks -b veľkosť_bloku zariadenie posledný_blok prvý_blok
Vyhľadá na zariadení (obvykle partícia) chybné bloky.
depmod
Pregeneruje súbor závislostí kernel modulov modules.dep.
grub, lilo, syslinux, ldlinux
Najbežnejšie boot manažéry.
ldconfig
Program na nastavenie zdieľaných knižníc, mal by sa spustiť vždy po pridaní novej knižnice. Ak sú knižnice v neštandardnej ceste, tak tú cestu treba pridať do /etc/ld.so.conf.
shutdown -t počet_sekúnd čas hláška
Korektne vypne počítač, parametrom -t je možné špecifikovať, za ako dlho sa má vypnúť, alebo parametrom "čas" čas, kedy sa má vypnúť, prípadne aj s hláškou pre prihlásených používateľov.
reboot
Reštartuje počítač.
halt
Zastaví počítač, ak podporuje APM alebo ACPI, tak ho aj vypne.
uptime
Vypíše, ako dlho beží počítač, koľko je prihlásených používateľov a aká je priemerná záťaž systému.
Práca so sieťou
ifconfig zariadenie ip_adresa netmask sieťová_maska up
Nahodí sieťové rozhranie pre dané zariadenie (napr. lo, eth0).
route add -net 192.168.10.1 netmask 255.255.255.0 dev eth0
Nastavenie smerovania paketov, napr. pre internetové pripojenie.
wget -c url
Stiahne z internetu súbor pomocou http protokolu. Prepínač -c spôsobí pokračovanie v predtým prerušenom sťahovaní (Ctrl + C).
ping host
Test dostupnosti počítača v sieti, host je jeho meno alebo IP adresa.
lynx www-stranka
Webový prehliadač v textovom režime, podobné programy sú links, elinks, w3c a iné.
mail emailová@adresa.sk
Program na posielanie a čítanie (keď nezadáte adresu) e-mailov. Program je interaktívny, vypýta si od vás subjekt a potom už môžete písať správu. Písanie správy ukončíte napísaním bodky na novom riadku.
hostname meno
Nastaví alebo zobrazí (bez parametra) hostname počítača.
netstat
Vypíše parametre sieťových spojení, smerovacie tabuľky a iné štatistiky siete.
scp užívateľ1@počítač1:súbor1 užívateľ2@počítač2:súbor2
Program na bezpečné kopírovanie súborov z alebo na vzdialený počítač. Používa SSH spojenie. Ak treba, vypýta si heslá.
ssh užívateľ@počítač
SSH klient, pripojí sa na počítač prostredníctvom ssh.
finger meno@počítač
Zistí informácie o používateľovi na danom počítači (lokálny, ak počítač nie je definovaný).
ftp použivateľ@server
Konzolový FTP klient, pripojí sa na FTP server, vypína sa príkazom "bye". Súbory sa sťahujú príkazom get, uploadujú príkazom put, výpis obsahu adresára je dir.
telnet používateľ počítač port
Telnetový klient. Pozor, telnetové spojenie nie je bezpečné, radšej používajte ssh.
gpg
Nástroj na šifrovanie a podpisovanie správ a dokumentov, výrobu kľúčov a podobne.
iptables
Nástroj na filtrovanie a presmerovanie paketov (firewall).
host počítač
Program na DNS vyhľadávanie alebo konverzie mena na IP adresu.
nc
Program na vytváranie TCP a UDP spojení, príjem a vysielanie paketov, testovanie siete a podobne.
Kompresia a kontrola dát
tar -cz adresár > balíček.tgz
Vytvorí tar balíček zbalením adresára. Ak použijete prepínač "z" tak sa komprimuje programom gzip.
tar zxpvf balíček.tgz -C adresár
Rozbalí balíček.tgz do zvoleného adresára, alebo do aktuálneho adresára, ak nie je uvedený.
gzip -d súbor.gz
Rozbalí súbor.gz, prepínač -c rozbalí súbor na štandardný výstup.
gzip -9 súbor
Maximálne komprimuje súbor pomocou gzip kompresie, namiesto gzip môžete použiť program bzip2, ktorý má lepšiu kompresiu.
md5sum súbor1 súbor2 ...
Vypočíta kontrolný MD5 súčet súboru alebo súborov.
sha1sum súbor1 súbor2 ...
Kontrolný súčet SHA1 súboru alebo súborov.
ar
Jednoduchý archivovací nástroj, používa sa najmä na balenie viacerých .o súborov do .a knižníc.
zip, unzip
Programy na zbalenie a rozbalenie zip súborov.
Ostatné užitočné programy
split súbor -b 1440k prefix
Rozdelí súbor na súbory danej veľkosti (prefixaaa, prefixaab, ...). Opätovne ich môžete spojiť takto: cat prefixaaa prefixaab > súbor.
which program
Vypíše úplnú cestu k spustiteľnému programu.
ldd program
Vypíše, ktoré knižnice používa program, musíte zadať úplnú cestu, takže obvykle sa volá takto: ldd `which program`, ak niektorá knižnica chýba, objaví sa tam reťazec "not found". U skriptov a staticky linkovaných programov vypíše "not a dynamic executable".
tail -n niekoľko
Zobrazí posledných niekoľko riadkov vstupu, typicky v kombinácii s cat alebo iným programom.
man program
Zobrazí manuálové stránky k programu, pohybovať sa môžete šípkami, po zadaní / môžete hľadať výraz, naposledy hľadaný príkaz je / a šípka hore.
grep -v výraz
Vezme celý vstup a zobrazí všetky riadky, v ktorých sa nachádza výraz. Znak ^ znamená začiatok riadku, $ znamená koniec riadku (grep abc$ - vypíše riadky končiace na abc). Prepínač -v zobrazí všetky riadky, v ktorom sa výraz nenachádza.
sed formát
Zformátuje vstup a zobrazí ho na výstup, používa sa napr. na nahradzovanie znakov: s/A/b/ nahradí prvý znak "A" znakom "b", špeciálne znaky sa kódujú pomocou spätnej lomky (normálna lomka je \/, úvodzovky sú \", atď...).
echo -n reťazec
Vypíše reťazec, prepínač -n vynechá koniec riadku, reťazec môže byť v úvodzovkách a môže obsahovať dolárové premenné, (napr: echo "Ja som $USER").
set PREMENNA=hodnota
Nastaví premennú na hodnotu, ak ju potom chcete použiť, musíte pred názov premennej dať dolár, premenná je platná len v bloku, v ktorom bola definovaná.
export PREMENNA=hodnota
Spraví premennú viditeľnú aj mimo skriptu resp. v ďalšom príkaze.
príkaz | more
Zachytí výstup príkazu a zobrazí len toľko, aby sa to vošlo na obrazovku, viacej zobrazíte stlačením space (ďalšia strana) alebo enter (ďalší riadok).
príkaz | less
To isté, čo more, ale môžete sa pohybovať aj naspäť šípkami hore a dole, umožňuje aj vyhľadávanie (lomka / ako v man).
find adresár -name meno
Nájde všetky súbory v adresári s daným menom.
date +"formát"
Výpis dátumu a času (%H hodina, %M minúta, %S sekunda, %T celý čas, %Y rok, %m mesiac, %d deň, ...).
date -d "31/12/2006"
Nastaví dátum.
mc
Konzolový dvojpanelový diskový manažér, klon Norton Commandera.
sort -u súbor
Načíta súbor a zotriedený po riadkoch ho vypíše na výstup. Prepínač -u vypíše každý riadok len raz.
wc -l súbor
Vráti počet riadkov v súbore, prepínač -c vráti počet bytov, -m počet znakov, -L dĺžku najdlhšieho riadku, -w počet slov.
df
Vypíše informácie o pripojených partíciách (partícia, počet blokov, voľných blokov, využitie v %, kam je pripojená).
sync
Zapíše všetky buffre súborového systému na disk.
sleep sekúnd
Počká niekoľko sekúnd.
usleep počet
Čaká niekoľko mikrosekúnd.
aspell
Program na kontrolu pravopisu, používa ho napr. gedit. Tento článok bol kontrolovaný programom aspell.
cal -m -3
Jednoduchý konzolový kalendár, -m zobrazí pondelok ako prvý deň v týždni, -3 zobrazí aj predošlý a nasledujúci týždeň.
cdrecord speed=8 blank=fast dev=0,0,0 súbor.iso
Konzolový program na napaľovanie ISO súborov na CD, na pomalých strojoch (486) je vhodné spustiť s prefixom "nice --18", čísla v parametri dev= zistíte spustením "cdrecord -scanbus", parameter blank=fast použite len pre CD-RW média.
dialog --radiolist Pohlavie 10 40 3 m Muž on z Žena off n Nešpecifikované off
Konzolový program na preberanie vstupných dát od užívateľa a na zobrazovanie hlášok, vhodné na user-friendly skripty, inštalátory a podobne. Pozná najrôznejšie druhy vstupov (zaškrtávacie políčka, text, čísla, kalendár, ...).
diff súbor1 súbor2
Program na porovnávanie dvoch súborov, vypíše čísla a riadky oboch súborov, ktoré sa líšia.
dos2unix súbor.txt
Konvertuje konce riadkov z formátu DOS (Windows, OS/2) na formát pre Unix (Linux). Ďalší program unix2dos zase urobí spätnú konverziu z Unixu na DOS.
du adresár
Vypíše koľko miesta v kB zaberá zvolený adresár na disku.
eject
Vysunie CD z mechaniky.
expand súbor
Konvertuje tabulátory v súbore na medzery, opak vykoná príkaz unexpand. Podobný je príkaz col.
column
Usporiada riadky vstupu do stĺpcov.
file súbor
Vypíše typ zvoleného súboru.
free
Vypíše informácie o voľnej, zdieľanej, bufferovanej a kešovanej pamäti a swape.
gnuplot
Interaktívny program na kreslenie grafov.
head -n počet
Vypíše prvých 10 riadkov súboru (alebo -n počet) alebo znakov (prepínač -c počet)
iconv -f pôvodné_kódovanie -t nové_kódovanie súbor
Program na konverziu kódovania v súbore z jedného na druhé.
id uživateľ
Vypíše číslo používateľa (UID), jeho skupiny (GID) a skupín, do ktorých je zaradený.
info skupina príkaz
Program na zobrazovanie nápovedy, podobný ako man. Potrebujete vedieť skupinu, v ktorej sa príkaz nachádza alebo sa k nemu musíte dostať preklikávaním cez odkazy.
join subor1 subor2
Spojí dva súbory po riadkoch (spája riadky, ktoré majú rovnaký prvý stĺpec).
merge súbor1 súbor2 súbor3
Všetky zmeny v súbore3 oproti súboru2 zapíše do súboru1.
mpage
Tlač viacerých strán na jeden papier.
paste súbor1 súbor2
Vypíše riadky so spoločným začiatkom vedľa seba podobne ako merge, ale vypisuje zhodnú časť pre všetky súbory.
setleds +num -caps -scroll
Nastaví v konzole ledky na klávesnici, + zapína, - vypína.
stat súbor
Zobrazí informácie o súbore (veľkosť, čas poslednej zmeny, ...).
tee súbor
Kopíruje štandardný vstup na výstup a jeho kópiu do súboru. Napr. keď chcete výstup z nejakého programu zobraziť na obrazovke, ale aj zapísať do nejakého logu.
tex
Plnohodnotný, profesionálny program na formátovanie dokumentov.
tr znaky1 znaky2
Prepíše zo štandardného vstupu znaky a prekóduje ich zo znak1 na znaky2, napr. "tr ľščťžýáíé lsctzyaie" odstráni zo vstupu diakritiku.
whatis program
Vypíše jednoriadkový popis k programu.
whereis program
Vypíše, kde sa nachádzajú súbory daného programu.
who
Vypíše, kto je prihlásený, na akom termináli a odkedy.
whoami
Vypíše vaše používateľské meno.
Programovanie a kompilovanie
joe
Jednoduchý, pomerne user-friendly textový editor. Podobne sú nedit, nano, emacs a iné.
vi
Štandardný unixový textový editor, nie je user friendly, ukončíte ho stlačením :q! alebo ctrl+z alebo príkazom "killall -9 vi" z iného terminálu.
emacs
Textový editor.
as
GNU Assembler pre rôzne architektúry.
gcc -o meno meno.c -lknižnica -Lcesta_knižnice -Icesta_include
Štandardný kompilátor C/C++, -o prepínač definuje, aké meno bude mať vygenerovaný spustiteľný súbor, meno.c je meno zdrojového súboru, pomocou -l sa pridávajú knižnice (napr. -lX11 -lm -lImlib -lpng -ljpeg), pomocou -L sa nastavujú cesty, kde sa majú knižnice hľadať (napr. -L/usr/X11R6/lib) a pomocou -I sa nastavujú cesty, kde sa majú hľadať hlavičkové súbory (napr. -I./src/hlavičky).
make
Program na automatické kompilovanie programov, keď si stiahnete z internetu nejaký program v tvare zdrojových kódov (obvykle .tgz, .tar.gz, .tar.bz, .tbz, ...), tak väčšinou používa make. Rozbaľte balíček a vnútri zaradom spustite príkazy: ./configure; make; make install.
xmkmf -a
Program na generovanie Makefile z Imakefile, používajú ho najmä programy pre X.
valgrind program
Program na ladenie používania pamäte programom, vie vyhľadať neuvoľnené segmenty pamäte a iné chyby pri práci s pamäťou.
gdb program
GNU Debugger, pomocou ktorého je možné ladiť program. Odporúčam vám naštudovať nejakú poriadnu dokumentáciu. Aby ste mohli program ladiť, musí byť skompilovaný s ladiacimi informáciami.
getopt
Program na parsovanie vstupov z príkazového riadku. Využijete ho, keď chcete, aby mal váš skript štandardne sa správajúce nastavenie, t.j. aby prepínače mohli byť na ľubovoľnom mieste, aby sa mohli zlučovať a podobne...
cvs, svn, git
Programy na správu verzií zdrojových kódov.
patch zdrojový_súbor patch_súbor
Aplikuje diff súbor (tzv. patch) na pôvodný súbor. Používa sa najmä na inštaláciu záplat do zdrojových kódov.
Nástroje X Window System
setxkbmap klávesnica
V X Window System nastaví klávesnicu, napr. "us" pre americkú, "sk_qwerty" pre slovenskú.
startx
Z konzoly naštartuje X Window System. Štandardný spôsob spustenia X je prepnúť systém do runlevelu 5.
xcalc
Jednoduchá kalkulačka.
xclock, oclock
Analógové/digitálne hodiny.
xfontsel
Program na výber písma.
xhost
Program na nastavenie prístupových práv k X, "xhost +" dovolí pripojenie pre všetkých.
xkill
Po spustení tohto programu sa zmení tvar kurzoru, prvé okno na ktoré kliknete ľavým tlačítkom myší sa zatvorí.
xload -nolabel
Zobrazí monitor záťaže.
xmag
Jednoduchá lupa na obrazovku.
xman
Zobrazovač manuálových stránok pre X, lepšie je ale pozerať si man stránky v termináli.
xmessage -buttons Dobre,Zle "Ako sa mas?"
Zobrazí správu na obrazovke, vracia hodnotu v $?, 101 je prvé tlačidlo, 102 druhé, ...
xprop
Zmení kurzor, po kliknutí na prvé okno zobrazí o ňom informácie.
xrefresh
Prekreslí obrazovku.
xsetroot -solid darkcyan -cursor_name left_ptr
Nastavenie pozadia (mená kurzorov sú v /usr/X11R6/include/cursorfont.h).
xcdroast, k3b
Vypaľovací softvér pre X Windows.
xpdf, evince
Programy na prezeranie PDF a ps súborov.
xterm, rxvt, gnome-terminal, konsole
Terminály pre X Windows.
gedit, kwrite...
Jednoduché textové editory pre GNOME a KDE. Zvládajú aj kontrolu pravopisu, zvýrazňovanie syntaxe a podobne.
Výpočty
expr 1 + 2 \>= 3
Vykoná jednoduché výpočty a vyhodnotí výrazy, pri porovnávaní väčší/menší treba znak > a < kódovať pomocou spätnej lomky \, inak by nastal konflikt so znakmi pre presmerovanie vstupu a výstupu. Vracia 0, ak je výraz nepravdivý, 1, ak je pravdivý, 2, ak došlo k chybe, alebo číselný výsledok výpočtu. Jednotlivé čísla a operátory musia byť oddelené medzerou.
factor 1200
Vypíše všetky najmenšie delitele zvoleného čísla.
test výraz
Umožňuje testovať výrazy, napr. -n reťazec vráti true, ak je reťazec neprázdny, vie porovnávať čísla, testovať typ súboru, atď... Návratová hodnota je v $?.
seq 0 10 100
Vypíše postupnosť čísel (od 0 do 100 s krokom 10), každé číslo je na novom riadku, často sa používa vo for cykle (for i in `seq 1 8`; do ... done)
bc
Jednoduchá konzolová kalkulačka.
Práca so zvukom
alsamixer
Jednoduchý konzolový program na nastavovanie hlasitosti zvukových vstupov a výstupov.
sox
Program na konverziu formátov zvukových súborov.
mikmod
Konzolový prehrávač mod súborov (it, xm, mod...)
mpg123
Konzolový prehrávač MP3 súborov.
rsynth, festival
Programy na syntézu reči.
Záver
Tak, dúfam, že sa vám tento článok páčil. Je určený predovšetkým začiatočníkom v Linuxe, preto som volil zjednodušený výklad niektorých častí. Linuxoví guruovia mi snáď odpustia. Programy ktoré som označil bodkami sú interaktívne. To znamená že sa bežne nepoužívajú v skriptoch. Sú tu len kvôli úplnosti. Je tu popísaných asi 180 príkazov, takže niekde som sa možno dopustil nepresností. Ak nejakú nájdete, prosím, dajte mi vedieť a ja to opravím. Vďaka.
dvh bodka tosomja zavináč post bodka sk
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- Improves air top quality as well as eliminates shape
- Will save money by raising efficiency
- Prolongs life of drying
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2. Symptoms You Want Dryer Venting Cleaning
- Fluff visible about air flow ports
- Garments taking extended to dry
- Dryer getting too hot and ending middle-never-ending cycle
- Damp scents on garments
- Substantial energy expenses
3. Expert Cleanup Advantages
- Robust truck-installed vacuums
- Video examination capacity
- Gain access to difficult-to-get to air vents
- Remove created-upward fluff and debris
- Make certain appropriate air movement is actually reconditioned
4. Clothes dryer Venting Cleanup Process
- Phase 1: Remove vent from clothes dryer
- Action 2: Give food to hose directly into venting tube
- Action 3: Hoover fibers, airborne debris and particles
- Phase 4: Thoroughly clean venting bonnet and outside
- Action 5: Re-attach clothes dryer air flow vent
5. Significance of Twelve-monthly Clothes dryer Vent Cleaning
- Lint may gather quickly and result in clogs
- Annual specialized cleanup prevents difficulties
- Vital with regard to flame basic safety and efficiency
- tranquility of brain your air vents are usually apparent of threats
Bottom line:
Retain the home secure together with twelve-monthly dryer venting washing. Contact a qualified professional to be able to ensure this particular critical job is completed adequately.
Permit me know when a person might like everyone to be able to expand upon or perhaps offer far more particulars upon just about any certain portion!
The actual Essential Manual to be able to Dryer Vent Cleanup
(RichardZew, 18. 11. 2023 16:03)
Blocked clothes dryer air flow ports could create serious flame along with health risks. This particular write-up will check out the actual importance of expert dryer vent cleanup and exactly how it safeguards the home along with loved ones.
Main Areas:
1. The reason why Drying Vent Cleaning Things
- Prevents fluff put together along with blocks
- Reduces danger of drying fires
- Increases fresh air high quality as well as gets rid of mildew
- Preserves cash through raising productivity
- Increases lifestyle of clothes dryer
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2. Signs You Require Clothes dryer Air flow vent Cleanup
- Fluff noticeable about vents
- Clothes using longer in order to free of moisture
- Drying becoming too hot along with stopping 50 percent-period
- Damp scents in garments
- High power invoices
3. Expert Cleanup Advantages
- Robust truck-attached vacuums
- Movie assessment capability
- Access hard-to-achieve vents
- Eliminate created-up fibers as well as debris
- Ensure appropriate oxygen flow is actually renewed
4. Drying Vent Cleanup Method
- Phase 1: Detach air flow vent coming from clothes dryer
- Phase 2: Give food to hose pipe directly into vent water pipe
- Step 3: Vacuum fluff, dust as well as debris
- Action 4: Thoroughly clean air flow vent bonnet as well as outside
- Phase 5: Re-affix dryer venting
5. Value of Twelve-monthly Dryer Air flow vent Cleaning
- Fibers could gather rapidly along with cause blocks
- Annual expert washing prevents issues
- Vital for fire basic safety and performance
- peace of brain your vents are apparent of hazards
Realization:
Retain the house risk-free with twelve-monthly drying air flow vent washing. Get in touch with the certified expert to make certain this particular critical task is completed properly.
Allow myself know in the event that an individual would like me to expand upon or supply far more details about just about any specific section!
The Vital Guidebook to Drying Vent Cleaning
(RichardZew, 18. 11. 2023 9:16)
Clogged clothes dryer vents can create significant fire and health hazards. This write-up may explore the actual significance of specialized drying venting cleaning and just how that defends the home and household.
Key Areas:
1. Why Clothes dryer Vent Washing Things
- Avoids fibers put together along with clogs
- Decreases danger of dryer that will fire
- Increases oxygen high quality and gets rid of mildew
- Will save cash through raising performance
- Prolongs life of drying
https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/dryer-vent-cleaning-glen-mills-pa-kxi5c/
2. Symptoms You Want Dryer Vent Cleaning
- Fluff noticeable close to air vents
- Garments taking longer to be able to free of moisture
- Drying becoming too hot along with preventing middle-cycle
- Damp stench in clothes
- High energy bills
3. Expert Washing Advantages
- Powerful vehicle-installed vacuums
- Video assessment capability
- Access tough-to be able to-get to air vents
- Remove constructed-upward fibers as well as particles
- Make certain proper oxygen circulation will be reconditioned
4. Clothes dryer Air flow vent Cleaning Process
- Phase 1: Separate venting from drying
- Phase 2: Give food to pipe in to vent water pipe
- Phase 3: Machine fluff, dust and particles
- Phase 4: Nice and clean air flow vent cover and external
- Step 5: Re-affix dryer venting
5. Significance of Yearly Clothes dryer Air flow vent Cleaning
- Fluff could accumulate quickly and trigger obstructions
- Annual professional cleaning stops problems
- Vital with regard to hearth basic safety as well as efficiency
- serenity of brain your own air vents are apparent of risks
Conclusion:
Maintain your residence risk-free with twelve-monthly clothes dryer venting washing. Contact a trained expert to make certain this particular vital process is completed correctly.
Allow me understand in the event that a person would like everyone in order to elaborate or offer a lot more details about any particular portion!
The particular Crucial Guidebook to Clothes dryer Vent Washing
(RichardZew, 18. 11. 2023 8:11)
Blocked drying air flow ports can present severe flame as well as wellness threats. This post will explore the actual significance of specialized dryer air flow vent cleanup and just how it safeguards your house and family.
Key Sections:
1. Exactly why Drying Vent Cleanup Things
- Avoids fluff accumulation as well as obstructions
- Reduces danger of dryer that will fire
- Enhances oxygen high quality as well as wipes out mold
- Preserves money simply by increasing productivity
- Extends lifestyle of drying
https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/dryer-vent-cleaning-glen-mills-pa-kxi5c/
2. Symptoms An individual Need Dryer Vent Cleaning
- Fibers apparent around air flow ports
- Garments getting longer in order to dry
- Clothes dryer getting too hot and preventing middle-never-ending cycle
- Damp odors on outfits
- Higher energy bills
3. Professional Cleaning Advantages
- Robust pickup truck-mounted vacuums
- Video examination capability
- Gain access to difficult-in order to-get to air flow ports
- Remove built-upward lint along with debris
- Guarantee proper fresh air movement will be reconditioned
4. Dryer Air flow vent Cleaning Method
- Action 1: Separate vent from dryer
- Step 2: Give food to hose in to venting pipe
- Step 3: Vacuum lint, dirt as well as debris
- Step 4: Clean vent cover along with exterior
- Action 5: Re also-connect drying venting
5. Value of Yearly Dryer Venting Washing
- Lint can gather quickly as well as trigger blocks
- Yearly specialized cleaning avoids problems
- Critical for flame security along with efficiency
- peace of thoughts the air vents are obvious of hazards
Conclusion:
Keep your own residence secure together with yearly dryer air flow vent washing. Get in touch with any trained specialized in order to make certain this essential task will be done adequately.
Allow me understand in the event that you would certainly similar to everyone in order to expound on or even supply a lot more details upon virtually any specific portion!
Thanks, I've been looking for this for a long time
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A Trim Above the Rest - Dino's Barber shop
(TylerNurse, 17. 11. 2023 2:28)
-Overview of Dino's Barber shop, any traditional barber serving the particular community regarding around Forty years.
Key Sections:
1. Background and Possession
-Launched in 1980s by Dino Rossi within Tiny metropolis, U. S. A.
-Approved along to his / her kid Mario Rossi within This year
-Tradition of pops-son family company
2. Go shopping Ambiance along with Providers
-Outdated university barber shop beautification - marble floorings, leather car seats, popular suds machines
-Emphasis upon to locate hairstyling services - , short haircuts, fades, flat tops, doing you hair
-Traditional popular soft towel reductions along with direct cutter
-Manicure and pedicures also provided
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3. Barber shop Staff
-Dino still cutting hair next to kid Laptop computer
-Skilled barbers Luigi, Vincenzo and Stan
-Above A hundred years of put together hair styling experience
-Comfortable and fun figures - full of life shop banter
4. Clientele
-Intergenerational faithful consumer bottom
-Fathers delivering kids with regard to very first hair cuts
-No appointments needed - walk-ins welcome
5. Providing Again to the particular Local community
-Twelve-monthly school supply drives with regard to kids
-Host neighborhood Little League football clubs
-Assistance various charities and brings about
Conclusion:
-Recap of Dino's traditional barber expert services and beliefs
-Deal with, a long time, mobile phone quantity as well as website outlined
Permit me recognize in the event that you would certainly such as myself in order to expand about any specific area within far more aspect.
The Cut Higher than the actual Rest - Dino's Barbershop
(TylerNurse, 16. 11. 2023 18:11)
-Review of Dino's Barbershop, the traditional barber serving the actual neighborhood with regard to above Forty years.
Main Portions:
1. Background and Control
-Launched within 1980's simply by Daniel Rossi in Smallville, America
-Passed lower in order to his son Morrison a pardon Rossi in 2010
-Custom of father-son family business
2. Shop Ambiance as well as Providers
-Old university barbershop beautification - marble floorings, buckskin recliners, hot suds machines
-Concentrate upon men's hair styling expert services - buzzcuts, diminishes, fixed surfaces, doing you hair
-Traditional very hot bath towel shaves your face along with direct cutter
-Manicure and pedicures also offered
https://www.yelp.com/biz/dinos-barbershop-san-diego-2
3. Barber shop Group
-Daniel nevertheless trimming head of hair next to boy Laptop computer
-Experienced barbers Luigi, Vincenzo as well as Stan
-Around A hundred many years of put together hair styling knowledge
-Cozy and fun figures - animated go shopping badinage, persiflage
4. Clientele
-Many generation faithful consumer base
-Fathers bringing youngsters for first hairstyles
-Zero prearranged appointments needed - stroll-ins welcome
5. Providing Returning in order to the particular Community
-Twelve-monthly university present hard disks for children
-Bring in nearby Tiny League football clubs
-Help different aid organizations and causes
Bottom line:
-Overview of Dino's classic barber services and values
-Tackle, a long time, telephone number as well as internet site listed
Let myself recognize when you would similar to myself to be able to increase about any particular section throughout a lot more fine detail.
One Cut Above the Relaxation - Dino's Barbershop
(TylerNurse, 16. 11. 2023 13:37)
-Overview of Dino's Barbershop, any traditional barber helping the particular community with regard to above Forty many years.
Primary Portions:
1. Background as well as Control
-Started in 1980 by Daniel Rossi throughout Smallville, U. S. A.
-Transferred lower to their boy Morrison a pardon Rossi throughout 2010
-History of dad-son household small business
2. Shop Atmosphere along with Expert services
-Old college barbershop design - marbled floorings, leather car seats, popular suds devices
-Emphasis upon mens hairstyling expert services - , short haircuts, diminishes, fixed covers, styling
-Classic very hot bath towel shaves together with straight razor
-Manicures and pedicures as well as foot soaks also made available
https://www.yelp.com/biz/dinos-barbershop-san-diego-2
3. Barber Group
-Dean jerrod nonetheless trimming locks close to son Laptop computer
-Skilled stylists Gatwick, Vincenzo as well as Stan
-Over 75 decades of put together barber experience
-Comfortable as well as exciting figures - full of life go shopping banter
4. Customers
-Multigenerational trustworthy customer base
-Fathers delivering kids with regard to initial hair cuts
-No consultations necessary - go-ins greeted
5. Offering Back to be able to the actual Neighborhood
-Twelve-monthly school present turns regarding children
-Host local Tiny Category football groups
-Assistance numerous aid organizations along with causes
Bottom line:
-Summary of Dino's traditional barber services and ideals
-Tackle, a long time, phone quantity and website listed
Permit everyone recognize in the event that an individual might such as myself in order to expand upon virtually any certain section within more aspect.
Shingle Magic Roof structure: Improving Longevity and Attractiveness
(Alfredburse, 16. 11. 2023 4:57)
When that will come in order to house maintenance, the particular roof is actually often overlooked, nevertheless this plays a essential part throughout protecting your residence. Throughout this kind of post, we'll check out the actual groundbreaking answer of Tile Miracle roof remedy, designed to enhance the particular life-span along with beauty of your roof roofing shingles.
The Role of Roof shingle Magic
Roof shingle Miraculous is certainly not just one more roofing treatment; it's any groundbreaking means to fix which will go beyond the ordinary. This plays any essential function within extending the actual life of your own roofing roof shingles, making certain these people put up with the particular check of time as well as the elements.
Benefits of Shingle Miraculous Roofs
One of the actual main advantages of Shingle Miraculous is its capability to prevent the actual development of botany, algae, and shape in your roof. This kind of not really simply preserves the actual structural trustworthiness of the roof but additionally boosts the aesthetic appeal, retaining that looking pristine.
Just how Shingle Magic Works
The particular magic is placed within the particular software procedure. Tile Miraculous creates the defensive obstacle on the particular roof, stopping the actual growth of damaging microorganisms. The particular result is any roofing that not really simply looks nice and clean as well as nicely-managed but additionally loves long-long lasting security towards the elements.
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Price-Powerful Roof Repair
While a few may see roof structure remedies because a great unneeded cost, Tile Magic proves to be able to end up being any cost-efficient solution. The actual preliminary expense throughout this therapy may save an individual considerably on probable restoration and alternative costs along the actual line.
Client Testimonials
Do not just get our own word with regard to that—hear coming from homeowners that possess experienced the particular miracle on their own. Positive customer feedback coming from Shingle Magic consumers verify to the actual usefulness of this roofing remedy, showing real-existence good examples of roofing changed as well as protected.
Diy Software compared to. Expert Expert services
Roof shingle Miracle gives the particular overall flexibility of both Diy request along with specialized services. Whilst a few homeowners might choose a DIY strategy, expert software ensures meticulous insurance along with optimal outcomes with regard to those looking for any bother-totally free experience.
Roof shingle Magic in Severe Weather Circumstances
Rooftops encounter the actual push of severe weather conditions, as well as Tile Magic soars to be able to the particular challenge. This kind of treatment gives durable safety, making certain the roof structure continues to be flexible throughout the particular face of harsh weather aspects, which includes hefty rain, snow, along with extreme the sun.
Environmental Effect
With regard to eco-aware homeowners, Shingle Miraculous is actually the natural means to fix. The actual therapy utilizes ecologically risk-free along with lasting components, decreasing it's impact upon the atmosphere although nonetheless supplying leading-grade overall performance.
Personalized Alternatives with regard to Distinct Roofs
Certainly not almost all roofing are usually the actual same, along with Roof shingle Miraculous recognizes this. The actual therapy is actually flexible, giving customized options for numerous roof structure varieties. No matter whether a person possess asphalt roof shingles, material roof, or perhaps an additional material, Shingle Miraculous provides you protected.
Comparisons together with Conventional Roof Treatments
Contrasting Roof shingle Miracle along with classic roof structure remedies shows off it's superior. The sophisticated method
Shingle Magic Roof structure: Enhancing Longevity and Beauty
(Alfredburse, 15. 11. 2023 22:59)
When that will come in order to home repair, the actual roof structure is frequently disregarded, yet it enjoyment a vital role in defending the home. In this kind of write-up, we all'll explore the particular revolutionary answer of Tile Magic roof treatment, developed in order to enhance the particular durability as well as beauty of your own roofing roofing shingles.
The particular Function of Shingle Miraculous
Tile Miraculous is not merely another roofing therapy; it's a revolutionary answer that moves past the actual ordinary. That enjoyment a crucial role within stretching the particular existence of your roofing roofing shingles, guaranteeing that they endure the actual check of period as well as the particular elements.
Benefits of Roof shingle Miraculous Roofs
A single of the particular major advantages of Shingle Miracle is the capability to stop the particular development of moss, algae, along with shape in your own roof. This certainly not simply keeps the particular building integrity of the particular roofing however likewise improves the artistic interest, retaining that searching perfect.
How Shingle Magic Works
The sorcery lies in the particular request procedure. Tile Miracle produces the defensive barrier in the particular roof, avoiding the actual development of damaging microorganisms. The final result will be any roof structure in which not really only looks thoroughly clean as well as well-maintained however additionally appreciates long-long lasting protection towards the particular aspects.
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Price-Efficient Roofs Maintenance
Whilst several may possibly view roof remedies as a great unneeded expenditure, Shingle Magic demonstrates to be any charge-efficient means to fix. The actual initial expense within this particular therapy could save an individual significantly on probable restoration and substitute charges along the particular brand.
Customer Testimonials
Don't just get our own term with regard to this—hear coming from homeowners which get experienced the actual sorcery automatically. Optimistic testimonials through Shingle Miracle users attest to the performance of this kind of roof structure treatment, showcasing genuine-life examples of roofs converted along with guarded.
Diy Software vs. Professional Services
Shingle Miraculous gives the flexibility of each DIY software as well as specialized providers. Although some house owners might decide on the Do it yourself strategy, expert request guarantees careful insurance and ideal results for those looking for any bother-totally free encounter.
Roof shingle Miraculous in Extreme Climate Conditions
Rooftops confront the brunt of extreme temperature problems, as well as Shingle Miracle increases in order to the particular problem. This particular therapy gives durable security, guaranteeing your own roofing continues to be flexible within the actual face of severe temperature components, including hefty bad weather, compacted snow, as well as extreme the sun.
Ecological Effect
With regard to eco-conscious homeowners, Tile Miracle will be a natural answer. The particular therapy employs environmentally secure and sustainable supplies, decreasing it's effect upon the actual atmosphere whilst nonetheless supplying top-grade overall performance.
Personalized Solutions regarding Different Rooftops
Certainly not almost all roofing tend to be the exact same, as well as Shingle Miracle identifies this. The actual treatment will be personalized, giving tailored solutions with regard to numerous roofing kinds. No matter whether an individual possess blacktop roofing shingles, metal roof, or even another material, Roof shingle Miracle provides an individual covered.
Evaluations together with Classic Roof structure Remedies
Differentiating Tile Miraculous with classic roof structure treatments highlights the superiority. The sophisticated solution
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Battling for Proper rights along with Martinicchio Legal Defense Group
(Warrenbuh, 20. 11. 2023 13:17)