Najprv ale odporúčam prečítať článok Spriateľme sa s príkazovým riadkom, ktorý úplné základy príkazového riadku vysvetľuje ešte podrobnejšie. V žiadnom prípade nečítajte tento článok, ak si myslíte že príkazový riadok do 21. storočia nepatrí alebo keď sa nechcete učiť nové veci.
Obsah:
- Špeciality príkazového riadku (BASH)
- Pohyb na disku a základná práca so súbormi
- Práca s terminálom
- Systémové nástroje
- Práca so sieťou
- Kompresia a kontrola dát
- Ostatné užitočné programy
- Programovanie a kompilovanie
- Nástroje X Window System
- Výpočty
- Práca so zvukom
Špeciality príkazového riadku (BASH)
Len veľmi stručne. Príkazy sa píšu do príkazového riadku, ten sa objaví po prihlásení v konzole. V X Window System môžete použiť program "Terminál" (xterm, rxvt, gnome-terminal, konsole, ...). História vašich príkazov je prístupná stlačením šípky hore, novšie príkazy zobrazujete šípkou dole. Automatické dopĺňanie cesty spravíte tabulátorom. Ak niečo pokazíte alebo z nejakého programu nebudete vedieť odísť, skúste stlačiť Q alebo Ctrl + C. Ak stlačíte Ctrl + Z, program sa zastaví, ale je možné ho znova spustiť príkazom "fg" alebo prerušiť príkazom "kill %1". Reťazce môžete zadávať do jednoduchých ' úvodzoviek alebo do dvojitých " úvodzoviek. Systémové premenné (začínajú dolárom $ a končia nealfanumerickým znakom) sa v texte nezobrazia, ak použijete jednoduché úvodzovky. Text v opačných ` úvodzovkách je vykonaný ako príkaz a výstup je prevzatý ako premenná. Znakom = sa premenným priradia hodnoty, ale musí byť bezprostredne za názvom premennej.
Ak chcete proces spustiť na pozadí, na konci príkazu napíšte ampersand &. Ak chcete presmerovať výstup programu (napr. do súboru), použite znak > ak chcete výstup zapísať na koniec súboru, použite >>, ak chcete prehnať dáta postupne viacerými programami použite znak |. Ak chcete presmerovať chybový výstup, použite 2>, ak chcete chybový výstup presmerovať do štandardného výstupu, použite 2>&1. Ak chcete vymenovať viac súborov, použite * pre ľubovoľný počet znakov (a* sú súbory začínajúce na "a"). Adresáre sa oddeľujú znakom /. Skryté súbory začínajú bodkou. Bodka znamená aj aktuálny adresár. Tilda ~ znamená domáci adresár /home/používateľ. Špeciálne znaky sa kódujú spätnou lomkou \. V niektorých programoch alebo termináloch ak nefunguje klávesa backspace, skúste Ctrl + H.
Pohyb na disku a základná práca so súbormi
cd adresár
Nastaví sa do zvoleného adresára, ak nie je adresár definovaný, presunie sa do domáceho adresára, / je koreňový adresár, ak je adresár .. tak sa presunie o úroveň vyššie, ../.. o dve úrovne vyššie.
ls -la adresár
Vypíše obsah adresára, ak nie je definovaný, tak obsah aktuálneho, prepínač -l zobrazí podrobnosti, prepínač -a zobrazí aj skryté súbory.
pwd
Vypíše cestu aktuálneho adresára.
mkdir -p adresár
Vytvorí adresár, s prepínačom -p vytvorí všetky adresáre vyššej úrovne, ak nie sú vytvorené.
rmdir adresár
Vymaže adresár.
cp zdroj cieľ
Kopíruje zdroj do cieľa (parametre sú súbory alebo adresáre).
mv zdroj cieľ
Presunie zdroj do cieľa (parametre sú súbory alebo adresáre).
cat súbor
Vypíše obsah súboru alebo aj viacerých súborov (mená oddelené medzerami).
chmod mód cieľ
Nastaví atribúty cieľa (súbor alebo adresár). Mód môže byť v oktálnej forme - 3 cifry 0 až 7 tvorené súčtom: 4 čítanie, 2 zápis, 1 spúšťanie. Prvá cifra sa týka majiteľa, druhá skupiny, tretia ostatných. Adresáre a spustiteľné súbory majú typicky 755, súbory 644, 777 znamená, že každý môže robiť všetko. Mód môže byť aj v písmenkovom tvare: prvé písmeno g=skupina, u=používateľ, o=ostatní, druhé písmeno + znamená nastaviť príznak, - znamená zrušiť, tretie písmeno: r čítanie, w zápis, x spúšťanie. Prepínač -R pre rekurzívne nastavenie (aj podadresáre a súbory v nich).
chown používateľ cieľ -R
Nastaví vlastníka (meno) cieľa (súbor alebo adresár), -R znamená rekurzívne (ak je to adresár).
chgrp skupina cieľ -R
Nastaví skupinu (meno skupiny) cieľa (súbor alebo adresár), -R znamená rekurzívne.
touch súbor
Obnoví časové značky súboru, ak neexistuje, tak ho vytvorí.
Práca s terminálom
tty
Vypíše meno dev súboru, ktorému zodpovedá aktuálny terminál (napr. /dev/pts/1).
clear
Vymaže v konzole obrazovku.
reset
Resetuje terminál, občas to pomôže, keď sa vám (napr. v mc) rozsypú znaky v konzole.
screen
Umožňuje na jednej konzole spúšťať viacero programov naraz, vhodné, ak ste pripojený vzdialene a máte len jeden terminál. Nové okno vytvoríte cez "Ctrl+a c", medzi oknami prepínate "Ctrl+a n", help pre screen zobrazíte cez "Ctrl+a ?".
setterm
Rôzne nastavenia terminálu, napr. setterm -foreground green, platí len pre konzolu.
loadkeys klávesnica
V konzole nastaví klávesnicu, napr. "us" pre americkú, "sk-qwerty" pre slovenskú, medzi klávesnicami sa prepína klávesu Pause.
setfont meno
V konzole natiahne font (sú v /lib/kbd/consolefonts, napr. lat2-08), nastavenie potom platí pre všetky konzoly, ak sa niečo pokašle, napíšte "reset", malo by sa to vrátiť do pôvodného stavu.
mesg y
Povolí (y) alebo zakáže (n) príjem textových správ na terminál (program talk).
write užívateľ terminál
Písanie textovej správy používateľovi, len na lokálnom termináli.
wall správa
Pošle správu všetkým prihláseným používateľom.
Systémové programy
passwd používateľ
Zmení heslo používateľovi. Ak nie je udané, tak zmení heslo práve prihlásenému používateľovi.
adduser meno
Pridá nového používateľa od systému, aby sa mohol prihlásiť, musíte mu ešte nastaviť heslo programom "passwd meno". Používateľa odstránite príkazom deluser.
addgroup meno
Pridá skupinu, delgroup odoberie skupinu.
ps aux
Zobrazí bežiace procesy, prepínač "a" zobrazí aj cudzie procesy, "u" vypíše aj mená používateľov, "x" zobrazí aj tie procesy, ktoré nemajú priradený terminál (démoni).
pidof program
Vypíše číslo PID (process identificator) zvoleného procesu.
top
Čosi ako task manažér ale v konzole, pravidelne zobrazuje procesy a ich záťaž, ukončíte ho stlačením "q".
kill -9 číslo_procesu
Ukončí proces s daným číslom procesu (PID). Prepínač -9 spôsobí okamžité ukončenie.
killall -9 meno_procesu
Ukončí všetky procesy s daným menom.
dmesg
Vypíše hlášky kernelu, ktoré sa objavili pri štarte počítača a počas behu.
uname -a
Vypíše všetky informácie o kerneli, prepínač -r napr. vypíše len verziu kernelu.
ln -s zdroj linka
Vytvorí symbolickú linku na zdroj (súbor alebo adresár). Ak neuvediete -s, tak sa vytvorí hard linka (neodporúčam).
dd if=vstup of=výstup bs=veľkosť_bloku count=počet_blokov
Surové kopírovanie dát, zo súboru alebo zariadenia, môžete uviesť aj veľkosť bloku a počet blokov, používa sa napr. na nahrávanie obrazov diskiet alebo na vytváranie prázdnych súborov určitej veľkosti (ako zdroj sa použije /dev/zero).
mount zariadenie adresár -o loop -t typ
Primontuje zariadenie (napr. /dev/fd0 je disketa) na adresár (napr. /mnt/floppy), pomocou -t môžete špecifikovať typ súborového systému. Ak je zariadenie uvedené v súbore /etc/fstab, tak stačí špecifikovať len adresár (mount /mnt/floppy). Prepínač -o loop sa používa, ak je namiesto zariadenia použitý súbor s filesystémom, vtedy ale musíte byť root. Adresár musí existovať a mal by byť prázdny.
umount zariadenie
Odpojí zariadenie, môže to byť aj adresár, nesmie byť ale používaný iným procesom, lebo vám ho nedovolí odpojiť.
mkfs -t typ zariadenie
Vytvorí súborový systém daného typu (ext2, ext3, vfat, msdos, minix, reiserfs) na zariadení alebo v súbore. Niekedy sú tieto programy prístupné ako mkfs.typ (mkfs.ext2) alebo ext2 a ext3 je prístupný cez mke2fs.
fdformat /dev/fd0
Program na formátovanie diskiet á la MS DOS.
fsck zariadenie
Skontroluje filesystém na zariadení (napr. partícia /dev/hda1), zariadenie by malo byť pripojené v read-only móde alebo byť nepripojené.
nice -priorita program parametre_programu
Program na spúšťanie iných programov s inou ako predvolenou prioritou 0. Priorita môže byť v rozsahu -19 až 19, záporné hodnoty (vyššia priorita) môže používať len root.
fdisk zariadenie
Program na vytváranie partícií na disku, (napr. fdisk /dev/hda), je interaktívny, "m" vypíše príkazy, "q" je koniec, "p" zoznam partícií, "d" maže partíciu, "n" je nová partícia, "w" zapíše zmeny.
su meno
Prihlásite sa ako iný používateľ, ak meno neuvediete tak ako root, v oboch prípadoch bude od vás pýtať heslo, ak nie ste root.
sudo príkaz
Spustí príkaz pod iným používateľom.
modprobe modul
Natiahne do jadra daný modul alebo moduly (napr. modprobe smc-ultra, automaticky dotiahne modul 8390 ktorý smc-ultra potrebuje).
insmod modul
Natiahne modul tak ako modprobe, ale musíte zadať úplnú cestu, nerieši závislosti modulov.
rmmod modul
Odoberie modul z jadra.
lsmod
Zobrazí všetky moduly natiahnuté v jadre plus nejaké informácie o nich.
lspci
Vypíše informácie o zariadeniach na PCI zbernici.
bash skript.sh
BASH je interpreter príkazov, to je to, v čom píšete príkazy do príkazového riadku. Ak chcete spustiť nejaký skript (niekoľko príkazov v súbore), tak to môžete spraviť takto: bash skript.sh alebo nastavíte spustiteľný príznak (chmod 755 skript.sh) a spustíte ho ako program (./skript.sh).
nohup program &
Program na spúšťanie programov na pozadí tak, aby sa neskončili, keď sa odhlásite. Výstup sa presmeruje do súboru nohup.out.
open
Spustí program v novej virtuálnej konzole.
exit
Ukončí aktuálny interpreter príkazového riadku.
mknod meno typ majorčíslo minorčíslo
Vytvorí špeciálny súbor blokového alebo znakového zariadenia (súbory v /dev/) daného typu (b=blokové, c/u=znakové, p=FIFO)
mkfifo meno
Vytvorí FIFO (pomenované rúry)
mkisofs -o súbor.iso adresár
Z adresára vytvorí ISO súbor, ktorý je potom možné napáliť pomocou cdrecord na CD.
badblocks -b veľkosť_bloku zariadenie posledný_blok prvý_blok
Vyhľadá na zariadení (obvykle partícia) chybné bloky.
depmod
Pregeneruje súbor závislostí kernel modulov modules.dep.
grub, lilo, syslinux, ldlinux
Najbežnejšie boot manažéry.
ldconfig
Program na nastavenie zdieľaných knižníc, mal by sa spustiť vždy po pridaní novej knižnice. Ak sú knižnice v neštandardnej ceste, tak tú cestu treba pridať do /etc/ld.so.conf.
shutdown -t počet_sekúnd čas hláška
Korektne vypne počítač, parametrom -t je možné špecifikovať, za ako dlho sa má vypnúť, alebo parametrom "čas" čas, kedy sa má vypnúť, prípadne aj s hláškou pre prihlásených používateľov.
reboot
Reštartuje počítač.
halt
Zastaví počítač, ak podporuje APM alebo ACPI, tak ho aj vypne.
uptime
Vypíše, ako dlho beží počítač, koľko je prihlásených používateľov a aká je priemerná záťaž systému.
Práca so sieťou
ifconfig zariadenie ip_adresa netmask sieťová_maska up
Nahodí sieťové rozhranie pre dané zariadenie (napr. lo, eth0).
route add -net 192.168.10.1 netmask 255.255.255.0 dev eth0
Nastavenie smerovania paketov, napr. pre internetové pripojenie.
wget -c url
Stiahne z internetu súbor pomocou http protokolu. Prepínač -c spôsobí pokračovanie v predtým prerušenom sťahovaní (Ctrl + C).
ping host
Test dostupnosti počítača v sieti, host je jeho meno alebo IP adresa.
lynx www-stranka
Webový prehliadač v textovom režime, podobné programy sú links, elinks, w3c a iné.
mail emailová@adresa.sk
Program na posielanie a čítanie (keď nezadáte adresu) e-mailov. Program je interaktívny, vypýta si od vás subjekt a potom už môžete písať správu. Písanie správy ukončíte napísaním bodky na novom riadku.
hostname meno
Nastaví alebo zobrazí (bez parametra) hostname počítača.
netstat
Vypíše parametre sieťových spojení, smerovacie tabuľky a iné štatistiky siete.
scp užívateľ1@počítač1:súbor1 užívateľ2@počítač2:súbor2
Program na bezpečné kopírovanie súborov z alebo na vzdialený počítač. Používa SSH spojenie. Ak treba, vypýta si heslá.
ssh užívateľ@počítač
SSH klient, pripojí sa na počítač prostredníctvom ssh.
finger meno@počítač
Zistí informácie o používateľovi na danom počítači (lokálny, ak počítač nie je definovaný).
ftp použivateľ@server
Konzolový FTP klient, pripojí sa na FTP server, vypína sa príkazom "bye". Súbory sa sťahujú príkazom get, uploadujú príkazom put, výpis obsahu adresára je dir.
telnet používateľ počítač port
Telnetový klient. Pozor, telnetové spojenie nie je bezpečné, radšej používajte ssh.
gpg
Nástroj na šifrovanie a podpisovanie správ a dokumentov, výrobu kľúčov a podobne.
iptables
Nástroj na filtrovanie a presmerovanie paketov (firewall).
host počítač
Program na DNS vyhľadávanie alebo konverzie mena na IP adresu.
nc
Program na vytváranie TCP a UDP spojení, príjem a vysielanie paketov, testovanie siete a podobne.
Kompresia a kontrola dát
tar -cz adresár > balíček.tgz
Vytvorí tar balíček zbalením adresára. Ak použijete prepínač "z" tak sa komprimuje programom gzip.
tar zxpvf balíček.tgz -C adresár
Rozbalí balíček.tgz do zvoleného adresára, alebo do aktuálneho adresára, ak nie je uvedený.
gzip -d súbor.gz
Rozbalí súbor.gz, prepínač -c rozbalí súbor na štandardný výstup.
gzip -9 súbor
Maximálne komprimuje súbor pomocou gzip kompresie, namiesto gzip môžete použiť program bzip2, ktorý má lepšiu kompresiu.
md5sum súbor1 súbor2 ...
Vypočíta kontrolný MD5 súčet súboru alebo súborov.
sha1sum súbor1 súbor2 ...
Kontrolný súčet SHA1 súboru alebo súborov.
ar
Jednoduchý archivovací nástroj, používa sa najmä na balenie viacerých .o súborov do .a knižníc.
zip, unzip
Programy na zbalenie a rozbalenie zip súborov.
Ostatné užitočné programy
split súbor -b 1440k prefix
Rozdelí súbor na súbory danej veľkosti (prefixaaa, prefixaab, ...). Opätovne ich môžete spojiť takto: cat prefixaaa prefixaab > súbor.
which program
Vypíše úplnú cestu k spustiteľnému programu.
ldd program
Vypíše, ktoré knižnice používa program, musíte zadať úplnú cestu, takže obvykle sa volá takto: ldd `which program`, ak niektorá knižnica chýba, objaví sa tam reťazec "not found". U skriptov a staticky linkovaných programov vypíše "not a dynamic executable".
tail -n niekoľko
Zobrazí posledných niekoľko riadkov vstupu, typicky v kombinácii s cat alebo iným programom.
man program
Zobrazí manuálové stránky k programu, pohybovať sa môžete šípkami, po zadaní / môžete hľadať výraz, naposledy hľadaný príkaz je / a šípka hore.
grep -v výraz
Vezme celý vstup a zobrazí všetky riadky, v ktorých sa nachádza výraz. Znak ^ znamená začiatok riadku, $ znamená koniec riadku (grep abc$ - vypíše riadky končiace na abc). Prepínač -v zobrazí všetky riadky, v ktorom sa výraz nenachádza.
sed formát
Zformátuje vstup a zobrazí ho na výstup, používa sa napr. na nahradzovanie znakov: s/A/b/ nahradí prvý znak "A" znakom "b", špeciálne znaky sa kódujú pomocou spätnej lomky (normálna lomka je \/, úvodzovky sú \", atď...).
echo -n reťazec
Vypíše reťazec, prepínač -n vynechá koniec riadku, reťazec môže byť v úvodzovkách a môže obsahovať dolárové premenné, (napr: echo "Ja som $USER").
set PREMENNA=hodnota
Nastaví premennú na hodnotu, ak ju potom chcete použiť, musíte pred názov premennej dať dolár, premenná je platná len v bloku, v ktorom bola definovaná.
export PREMENNA=hodnota
Spraví premennú viditeľnú aj mimo skriptu resp. v ďalšom príkaze.
príkaz | more
Zachytí výstup príkazu a zobrazí len toľko, aby sa to vošlo na obrazovku, viacej zobrazíte stlačením space (ďalšia strana) alebo enter (ďalší riadok).
príkaz | less
To isté, čo more, ale môžete sa pohybovať aj naspäť šípkami hore a dole, umožňuje aj vyhľadávanie (lomka / ako v man).
find adresár -name meno
Nájde všetky súbory v adresári s daným menom.
date +"formát"
Výpis dátumu a času (%H hodina, %M minúta, %S sekunda, %T celý čas, %Y rok, %m mesiac, %d deň, ...).
date -d "31/12/2006"
Nastaví dátum.
mc
Konzolový dvojpanelový diskový manažér, klon Norton Commandera.
sort -u súbor
Načíta súbor a zotriedený po riadkoch ho vypíše na výstup. Prepínač -u vypíše každý riadok len raz.
wc -l súbor
Vráti počet riadkov v súbore, prepínač -c vráti počet bytov, -m počet znakov, -L dĺžku najdlhšieho riadku, -w počet slov.
df
Vypíše informácie o pripojených partíciách (partícia, počet blokov, voľných blokov, využitie v %, kam je pripojená).
sync
Zapíše všetky buffre súborového systému na disk.
sleep sekúnd
Počká niekoľko sekúnd.
usleep počet
Čaká niekoľko mikrosekúnd.
aspell
Program na kontrolu pravopisu, používa ho napr. gedit. Tento článok bol kontrolovaný programom aspell.
cal -m -3
Jednoduchý konzolový kalendár, -m zobrazí pondelok ako prvý deň v týždni, -3 zobrazí aj predošlý a nasledujúci týždeň.
cdrecord speed=8 blank=fast dev=0,0,0 súbor.iso
Konzolový program na napaľovanie ISO súborov na CD, na pomalých strojoch (486) je vhodné spustiť s prefixom "nice --18", čísla v parametri dev= zistíte spustením "cdrecord -scanbus", parameter blank=fast použite len pre CD-RW média.
dialog --radiolist Pohlavie 10 40 3 m Muž on z Žena off n Nešpecifikované off
Konzolový program na preberanie vstupných dát od užívateľa a na zobrazovanie hlášok, vhodné na user-friendly skripty, inštalátory a podobne. Pozná najrôznejšie druhy vstupov (zaškrtávacie políčka, text, čísla, kalendár, ...).
diff súbor1 súbor2
Program na porovnávanie dvoch súborov, vypíše čísla a riadky oboch súborov, ktoré sa líšia.
dos2unix súbor.txt
Konvertuje konce riadkov z formátu DOS (Windows, OS/2) na formát pre Unix (Linux). Ďalší program unix2dos zase urobí spätnú konverziu z Unixu na DOS.
du adresár
Vypíše koľko miesta v kB zaberá zvolený adresár na disku.
eject
Vysunie CD z mechaniky.
expand súbor
Konvertuje tabulátory v súbore na medzery, opak vykoná príkaz unexpand. Podobný je príkaz col.
column
Usporiada riadky vstupu do stĺpcov.
file súbor
Vypíše typ zvoleného súboru.
free
Vypíše informácie o voľnej, zdieľanej, bufferovanej a kešovanej pamäti a swape.
gnuplot
Interaktívny program na kreslenie grafov.
head -n počet
Vypíše prvých 10 riadkov súboru (alebo -n počet) alebo znakov (prepínač -c počet)
iconv -f pôvodné_kódovanie -t nové_kódovanie súbor
Program na konverziu kódovania v súbore z jedného na druhé.
id uživateľ
Vypíše číslo používateľa (UID), jeho skupiny (GID) a skupín, do ktorých je zaradený.
info skupina príkaz
Program na zobrazovanie nápovedy, podobný ako man. Potrebujete vedieť skupinu, v ktorej sa príkaz nachádza alebo sa k nemu musíte dostať preklikávaním cez odkazy.
join subor1 subor2
Spojí dva súbory po riadkoch (spája riadky, ktoré majú rovnaký prvý stĺpec).
merge súbor1 súbor2 súbor3
Všetky zmeny v súbore3 oproti súboru2 zapíše do súboru1.
mpage
Tlač viacerých strán na jeden papier.
paste súbor1 súbor2
Vypíše riadky so spoločným začiatkom vedľa seba podobne ako merge, ale vypisuje zhodnú časť pre všetky súbory.
setleds +num -caps -scroll
Nastaví v konzole ledky na klávesnici, + zapína, - vypína.
stat súbor
Zobrazí informácie o súbore (veľkosť, čas poslednej zmeny, ...).
tee súbor
Kopíruje štandardný vstup na výstup a jeho kópiu do súboru. Napr. keď chcete výstup z nejakého programu zobraziť na obrazovke, ale aj zapísať do nejakého logu.
tex
Plnohodnotný, profesionálny program na formátovanie dokumentov.
tr znaky1 znaky2
Prepíše zo štandardného vstupu znaky a prekóduje ich zo znak1 na znaky2, napr. "tr ľščťžýáíé lsctzyaie" odstráni zo vstupu diakritiku.
whatis program
Vypíše jednoriadkový popis k programu.
whereis program
Vypíše, kde sa nachádzajú súbory daného programu.
who
Vypíše, kto je prihlásený, na akom termináli a odkedy.
whoami
Vypíše vaše používateľské meno.
Programovanie a kompilovanie
joe
Jednoduchý, pomerne user-friendly textový editor. Podobne sú nedit, nano, emacs a iné.
vi
Štandardný unixový textový editor, nie je user friendly, ukončíte ho stlačením :q! alebo ctrl+z alebo príkazom "killall -9 vi" z iného terminálu.
emacs
Textový editor.
as
GNU Assembler pre rôzne architektúry.
gcc -o meno meno.c -lknižnica -Lcesta_knižnice -Icesta_include
Štandardný kompilátor C/C++, -o prepínač definuje, aké meno bude mať vygenerovaný spustiteľný súbor, meno.c je meno zdrojového súboru, pomocou -l sa pridávajú knižnice (napr. -lX11 -lm -lImlib -lpng -ljpeg), pomocou -L sa nastavujú cesty, kde sa majú knižnice hľadať (napr. -L/usr/X11R6/lib) a pomocou -I sa nastavujú cesty, kde sa majú hľadať hlavičkové súbory (napr. -I./src/hlavičky).
make
Program na automatické kompilovanie programov, keď si stiahnete z internetu nejaký program v tvare zdrojových kódov (obvykle .tgz, .tar.gz, .tar.bz, .tbz, ...), tak väčšinou používa make. Rozbaľte balíček a vnútri zaradom spustite príkazy: ./configure; make; make install.
xmkmf -a
Program na generovanie Makefile z Imakefile, používajú ho najmä programy pre X.
valgrind program
Program na ladenie používania pamäte programom, vie vyhľadať neuvoľnené segmenty pamäte a iné chyby pri práci s pamäťou.
gdb program
GNU Debugger, pomocou ktorého je možné ladiť program. Odporúčam vám naštudovať nejakú poriadnu dokumentáciu. Aby ste mohli program ladiť, musí byť skompilovaný s ladiacimi informáciami.
getopt
Program na parsovanie vstupov z príkazového riadku. Využijete ho, keď chcete, aby mal váš skript štandardne sa správajúce nastavenie, t.j. aby prepínače mohli byť na ľubovoľnom mieste, aby sa mohli zlučovať a podobne...
cvs, svn, git
Programy na správu verzií zdrojových kódov.
patch zdrojový_súbor patch_súbor
Aplikuje diff súbor (tzv. patch) na pôvodný súbor. Používa sa najmä na inštaláciu záplat do zdrojových kódov.
Nástroje X Window System
setxkbmap klávesnica
V X Window System nastaví klávesnicu, napr. "us" pre americkú, "sk_qwerty" pre slovenskú.
startx
Z konzoly naštartuje X Window System. Štandardný spôsob spustenia X je prepnúť systém do runlevelu 5.
xcalc
Jednoduchá kalkulačka.
xclock, oclock
Analógové/digitálne hodiny.
xfontsel
Program na výber písma.
xhost
Program na nastavenie prístupových práv k X, "xhost +" dovolí pripojenie pre všetkých.
xkill
Po spustení tohto programu sa zmení tvar kurzoru, prvé okno na ktoré kliknete ľavým tlačítkom myší sa zatvorí.
xload -nolabel
Zobrazí monitor záťaže.
xmag
Jednoduchá lupa na obrazovku.
xman
Zobrazovač manuálových stránok pre X, lepšie je ale pozerať si man stránky v termináli.
xmessage -buttons Dobre,Zle "Ako sa mas?"
Zobrazí správu na obrazovke, vracia hodnotu v $?, 101 je prvé tlačidlo, 102 druhé, ...
xprop
Zmení kurzor, po kliknutí na prvé okno zobrazí o ňom informácie.
xrefresh
Prekreslí obrazovku.
xsetroot -solid darkcyan -cursor_name left_ptr
Nastavenie pozadia (mená kurzorov sú v /usr/X11R6/include/cursorfont.h).
xcdroast, k3b
Vypaľovací softvér pre X Windows.
xpdf, evince
Programy na prezeranie PDF a ps súborov.
xterm, rxvt, gnome-terminal, konsole
Terminály pre X Windows.
gedit, kwrite...
Jednoduché textové editory pre GNOME a KDE. Zvládajú aj kontrolu pravopisu, zvýrazňovanie syntaxe a podobne.
Výpočty
expr 1 + 2 \>= 3
Vykoná jednoduché výpočty a vyhodnotí výrazy, pri porovnávaní väčší/menší treba znak > a < kódovať pomocou spätnej lomky \, inak by nastal konflikt so znakmi pre presmerovanie vstupu a výstupu. Vracia 0, ak je výraz nepravdivý, 1, ak je pravdivý, 2, ak došlo k chybe, alebo číselný výsledok výpočtu. Jednotlivé čísla a operátory musia byť oddelené medzerou.
factor 1200
Vypíše všetky najmenšie delitele zvoleného čísla.
test výraz
Umožňuje testovať výrazy, napr. -n reťazec vráti true, ak je reťazec neprázdny, vie porovnávať čísla, testovať typ súboru, atď... Návratová hodnota je v $?.
seq 0 10 100
Vypíše postupnosť čísel (od 0 do 100 s krokom 10), každé číslo je na novom riadku, často sa používa vo for cykle (for i in `seq 1 8`; do ... done)
bc
Jednoduchá konzolová kalkulačka.
Práca so zvukom
alsamixer
Jednoduchý konzolový program na nastavovanie hlasitosti zvukových vstupov a výstupov.
sox
Program na konverziu formátov zvukových súborov.
mikmod
Konzolový prehrávač mod súborov (it, xm, mod...)
mpg123
Konzolový prehrávač MP3 súborov.
rsynth, festival
Programy na syntézu reči.
Záver
Tak, dúfam, že sa vám tento článok páčil. Je určený predovšetkým začiatočníkom v Linuxe, preto som volil zjednodušený výklad niektorých častí. Linuxoví guruovia mi snáď odpustia. Programy ktoré som označil bodkami sú interaktívne. To znamená že sa bežne nepoužívajú v skriptoch. Sú tu len kvôli úplnosti. Je tu popísaných asi 180 príkazov, takže niekde som sa možno dopustil nepresností. Ak nejakú nájdete, prosím, dajte mi vedieť a ja to opravím. Vďaka.
dvh bodka tosomja zavináč post bodka sk
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Přehled komentářů
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https://www.pinterest.com/pin/1081989879212534155/
Setting out on a judicial venture necessitates mastery, and our seasoned team deals regarding defending your rights with unwavering allegiance. From small infractions up to intricate criminal allegations, our attorneys convey a breadth in competency to this discussion.
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Jurisprudential intricacies could be discouraging. We prioritize lucid dialogue, retaining the client briefed at each step. Our devotion regarding clarity affirms one comprehend those nuances of one's proceeding.
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(MarioDiock, 17. 12. 2023 13:36)
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https://www.pinterest.com/pin/1081989879212534155/
Setting out upon a legal odyssey necessitates mastery, plus this veteran team deals in safeguarding one's rights featuring unflinching commitment. From misdemeanors up to multifaceted defense accusations, our lawyers bring a abundance in expertise toward the proceeding.
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Our triumph stories echo through the corridors of equity. We bears a demonstrated track evidence for gaining favorable conclusions for these clients, reshaping complications toward victories.
Customized Legal Tactics
Understanding thus no pair of cases are akin, these judicial authorities engineer custom tactics. We delve profoundly into those details of your circumstance, guaranteeing a advocacy approach that corresponds seamlessly to your distinct circumstances.
Transparent Dialogue
Judicial nuances can manifest as discouraging. We showcase lucid discourse, keeping you briefed during every step. Our allegiance to transparency ensures one comprehend the intricacies of one's matter.
One's Advocate, One's Reinforcement: The Note from Our Legal Team**
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(MarioDiock, 17. 12. 2023 11:20)
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(MarioDiock, 17. 12. 2023 10:10)
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(MarioDiock, 17. 12. 2023 8:57)
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(MarioDiock, 17. 12. 2023 7:46)
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(MarioDiock, 17. 12. 2023 6:35)
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(MarioDiock, 17. 12. 2023 5:26)
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(MarioDiock, 17. 12. 2023 4:15)
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(MarioDiock, 17. 12. 2023 3:04)
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(MarioDiock, 17. 12. 2023 1:56)
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(Donaldpah, 17. 12. 2023 1:10)
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Showcasing Exceptional Jurisprudential Support: The Diego Criminal Advocacy Counsel
(MichaelFaf, 18. 12. 2023 0:25)